نشریه پژوهش های زبانشناختی در زبان های خارجی
سال یازدهم شماره 1 (بهار 1400)

The purpose of this paper is to find the difference between descriptive and research analysis in studies for comparing and contrasting languages. Comparison of languages is a linguistic approach for comparing languages with each other based on certain criteria and purposes. In other words, the comparison of languages is the analysis of two or more languages that are similar or different in terms of some criteria. In general, it is carried out in three different ways and with certain goals: 1- The purpose of the historical and comparative linguistics is to identify the language families, i.e. the group of historically relatedness languages, which are derived from a common proto-language. 2- The purpose of language typology is to classify the different languages according to the same grammatical structure and determine the pattern structure. Sometimes, the result of a comparing shows that languages do not differ from one another according to some criteria, which is interpreted in the framework of language universals. 3- The goal of contrastive linguistics is to contrast the structural differences between two or more languages, which can affect the teaching of foreign languages. Languages could be also compared in terms of diachronic (historical) and synchronic (structural) approach. Just only the historical and comparative linguistics is a diachronic study. Finally, the present paper provides a totally research-based approach to language comparisons.

The quality of the teacher is deemed to be an essential component of any education system. In view of this, over the past decade, performance assessments have gained momentum in teacher education context and in assessing pre-service teachers’ professional competencies. In Iran, Farhanghian University, having put performance assessment in its educational agenda, has recently set up a national project named Evaluation of Teachers' Professional Competencies aiming to assess the attainment of professional competencies by student teachers as part of its teacher licensing requirements. Taking this issue into account, this study intends to design and validate a framework of teacher competencies to be used in Farhanghian University. To this end, the researchers conducted a thorough analysis of relevant studies on teacher education, effective teaching, teacher competence, and teacher evaluation. Following this, they examined pertinent national documents, and explored teacher educators’ and curriculum developers’ perspectives via in-depth interviews. Analyses of the collected data yielded a performance assessment rubric with six domains to be utilized in evaluating the EFL student teachers’ professional competencies.

In line with the perspective that teachers are the most significant agents in language policy enactment, teacher agency in general and the pivotal role of agency in curriculum reforms, in particular, have received a surge of attention in recent years. This study aims to investigate the way a group of experienced EFL teachers exerted agency in the context of curriculum reform in Iran. Narrative enquiry was utilized to explore teachers’ agency by drawing on the ecological approach proposed by Priestley, Biesta, and Robinson (2015). Seven teachers (aged between 30 to 45 years) of English as a foreign language with more than 10 years of teaching experience at state high-schools participated in this study. Snowball sampling was utilized for selecting the teachers who had been involved in teaching both old and new books, designed by the Iranian Ministry of Education, for over five years. The results indicated that the teachers construct agency in order to cope with the changes in the curriculum by adhering to many past experiences, creating an image of the future, and enacting the curriculum despite the challenges. This study also highlighted the importance of teacher agency in professional development and improvement of education and learning in the time of curriculum reform.

Undoubtedly, English plays an important role as an interface language in the current world of conversations and interactions. Post method lets teacher share his/her experiences to others and be creative all the time. This paper brings new insights into identifying and determining priority of 10 macro strategies of post-method as well as measurement, among 60 participants, male and female with at least 5 years experience in state schools of Sistan and Baluchistan province in Iran. In this research the framework is descriptive-survey method and final results extracted through using the AHP comparative questionnaire among the experts in schools familiar with post method and the Expert choice software. The validity of the tool was confirmed by the experts, and its reliability was calculated by the inconsistency rate. Regarding the selected topic, this research is unique in its own right and place. Therefore, the researcher decided to remove the available gap by doing the presented study. The results showed that among the main factors influencing the appropriate selection of teaching methods around post-method issue, first of all, minimizing perceptual mismatches, then, maximizing learning opportunities were more significant and valuable. Conceptualizing linguistic input, as well as activating intuitive heuristic prioritized at the bottom of ranking order. It is hoped that this study will pave the way for experts and teachers studied in different educational settings.

The present exploratory research intended to investigate the coherence relations in intercultural communications in the process of translation. As a result, the manifestations of underspecification in translation strategies of the most frequent, complex, common, and apparently simple discourse marker “and” were investigated qualitatively and quantitatively. Research methodologies in discourse analysis and translation studies were combined through the data derived from parallel corpora in simultaneous translation. The parallel corpora in consisted of three lectures in Persian and their simultaneous translation into English including about 35000 words. Instances of DMs were determined and sorted applying Mohammadi and Dehghan (2020) inventory of DMs based on the analysis of corpora in translation studies. The results revealed that in 73% of the cases, the simultaneous translator resorted to underspecification in the process of translating discourse marker “and”. This explorative investigation revealed two manifestations of underspecification in the process of analysis: change and omission. The translator changed this DM into different DMs in 35% of the instances. And the instances of AND were deleted in 38% of the cases. However, in 28% the instances of use “and” was not underspecified in the process of translation. The bases and sources were discussed and different educational, research, and administrative implications were suggested.

The present study aimed to explore the effect of EFL teachers’ autonomy supportive behaviors on Iranian EFL learners’ readiness for autonomy. To this end, readiness for autonomy questionnaire (RFAQ) was administered to 240 intermediate EFL learners at five language institutes in Kermanshah, Iran. Then, the researchers trained four EFL teachers based on eight autonomy supportive strategies of self-determination theory (SDT) and devided the participants to two groups of 120 EFL learners. Afterwards, trained teachers attended their classes using the SDT autonomy-supportive strategies. RFAQ was administered to both experimental and control groups for the second time six months later after the experimental group experienced autonomy supportive behaviors. The data analyses revealed that EFL teachers’ autonomy supportive behaviors resulted in an improvement in the five domains determined in the learners’ questionnaire: learners’ acceptance of more responsibility, knowledge about themselves as learners, better knowledge of learning context, a better command of learning process, and more self-initiated learning activities. Implications are discussed.The present study aimed to explore the effect of EFL teachers’ autonomy supportive behaviors on Iranian EFL learners’ readiness for autonomy. To this end, readiness for autonomy questionnaire (RFAQ) was administered to 240 intermediate EFL learners at five language institutes in Kermanshah, Iran. Then, the researchers trained four EFL teachers based on eight autonomy supportive strategies of self-

Translation is a proper tool that provides opportunities for reading different texts including horror fiction all over the world. Vinay and Darbelnet are theorists who introduce seven strategies for translation. These strategies include: borrowing, calque, literal translation, transposition, modulation, equivalence and adaptation (cited in Munday, 2012). Davies (2003) offers seven strategies for translating culture-specific words, and three strategies of footnote, dropping cultural references and equivalence, play important roles in translating the horror genre. In this research, attempts have been made to study “The Graveyard” novel by Neil Gaiman using library research method and to study the translation challenges at horror works in Persian translation according to Vinay and Darbelnet and Davies; therefore, the following questions were raised: Which techniques the translator has used to translate the horror elements? Was the translator successful in applying translation techniques based on the features of horror genre to create the same effect as the source text? The results showed that the translator has used strategies of omission, adaptation, literal translation, transposition, and modulation and in many cases when selecting the strategies didn't pay attention to the features of horror genre and it makes the reader feel more horror when reading the original text. The results of this study, in addition to helping the translator to identify the strengths and weaknesses of his translation, will reveal the necessity and importance of paying attention to the features of the text for translators and English students.

Linguistic critique and techniques used in the translation of the novel "Al_layl Fi Nama'a" Abstract One of the cultural exchange ways in societies is the element of translation. Using linguistics and translation techniques brings about a fluent and understandable translation and also development of scientific, social, anthropological goals. Some translation tetechniques according to "Monila Valiber theory" include:adaptation, expansion,borrowing, copying, description,finding parallelism, substitution, transposition, allocation, etc. This research according to linguistic theories such as Roman Jacobson's (1959/114:2000) and translation techniques,has criticized the novel "Al_layl Fi Nama'a" complied by Zayd al_Shahid. During the translation, the translator has translated descriptive _ analytical concepts skillfully, but based on grammatical structures and similarities in some situations, which has lowered the literary value of the novel. The translator has mostly used direct interlingual translation or the word translation from one language to another. He has literalized some words and even has omitted some sentences whether willingly or not which is not consistent with the concept of the novel. Also the translator has used translation techniques incorrectly, rarely using indirect translation methods. This research examines the mentioned translation, according to linguistics theories, using translation techniques. It has replaced equivalents for some words and is spared from the defects of the novel to exhibit it profound. Keywords: "Linguistic Criticism"; "Translation Techniques"; "Al-Layl in Nima'a."

The main and ultimate goal in teaching Russian as a foreign language, such as teaching any foreign language, is to use the language as a communication tool. In line with this goal, grammar education has a key role. Grammar is the most important educational aspect in Teaching Russian. The methodology of teaching Russian as a foreign language with emphasis on the undeniable importance and key role of grammar in the process of language teaching, the most important issue in relation to it is the necessity of applying communication approach as the most effective and effective method of teaching in the formation of grammatical skills and ability with the aim of language proficiency as a communication tool. Implementing a communication approach in teaching grammar to students requires infrastructures and prerequisites that the traditional Russian language teaching system is unable to meet these needs through the dominant grammar-translation method. In order to meet these needs, one of the basic measures is to revise all components of the education system, especially the content, and how to organize it based on the most basic principles of the methodology of teaching Russian as a foreign language. The present study examined the importance and role of grammar in Russian language teaching and the position of communication approach in its education and presented their methodological solutions according to the challenges in this field.

Metacognitive intervention is known as one of the effective approaches to increase listening skills and comprehension. Recent research on less-/more-skilled L2 listeners indicated that metacognitive intervention is more rewarding for less-skilled L2 listeners than more-skilled counterparts. However, since more-skilled L2 listeners achieved a repertoire of knowledge and skills, it is more difficult for them to achieve more improvement. Therefore, the scales of improvements are different between less- and more-skilled L2 listeners, and mere comparison between pre- and post-tests does not suffice. In this study, however, Fuzzy logic analysis was employed as a remedial approach in order to equalize these scales. Next, the comparison was made between less- and more-skilled L2 listeners to find out which group would logically benefit more from metacognitive intervention. A quantitative approach and quasi-experimental design were used to address the research questions. 65 Iranian students were selected including 31 more-skilled (15 advanced and 16 upper-intermediate) and 34 less-skilled (18 intermediate and 16 lower-intermediate). The instruction was based on metacognitive intervention in eight sessions. The result, which was based on a Fuzzy logic analysis approach, indicated that more-skilled L2 listeners benefited more than less-skilled L2 listeners from metacognitive intervention, and is quite contrary to the previous studies. This study is beneficial to the field of assessment. Assessment based solely on differences in pre-/post-test results may not be adequate in some cases. Researchers and teachers should consider other factors in their judgments.